PHONEMIC AWARENESS AND RAPID NAMING
1. Introduction to the LAC-3
Basic material relating to phoneme awareness/auditory conceptualization and the Lindamood–Bell Auditory Conceptualization Test–Third Edition (LAC-3) is presented in this chapter. In particular, background information about auditory conceptual- ization is presented, the LAC-3 is described, and its principal uses are delineated.
Background of the LAC-3 Tests measuring the ability to judge sameness or difference of syllable or word pairs have been available for some time. These tests measure an important gross judgment. The development of reading and spelling skills, however, requires not only the gross discrimination of syllable or word sameness or difference, but also the ability to discern how and where one syllable or word differs from another, and the ability to represent this contrast visually. The LAC–3 provides a unique method of measuring this critical second dimension of auditory processing by asking examinees to judge and conceptualize the points of contrast between words in respect to the identity, number, and sequence of phonemes, syllables, or both. The following subsections discuss the meaning of the term auditory conceptualization, the importance of auditory conceptualization to literacy development, and the role of phoneme awareness/auditory conceptualization in the gestalt of literacy. A Definition of Auditory Conceptualization In the Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test–Revised (LAC–R) C. H. Linda- mood and P. C. Lindamood (1979) defined auditory conceptualization as “the ability to encode, or visually represent, precisely how and where two spoken patterns vary in the number, identity, and sequence of their sounds” (p. 2). This definition deals with the detection, interpretation, and reaction to sound stimuli. Auditory conceptualization, as defined in the LAC–3, is referred to as “phoneme awareness” in other tests measuring some similar abilities (e.g., Test of Phonological Aware- ness [TOPA; Torgesen & Bryant, 1994], Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing [CTOPP; Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1999], Test of Phonological Awareness Skills [TOPAS; Newcomer & Barenbaum, 2003]). Therefore, regarding the LAC–3, the terms auditory conceptualization and phoneme awareness (a term not in use among educators when the LAC was initially developed) may be considered in- terchangeable. From this point forward, the construct measured by the LAC–3 will be referred to as phoneme awareness/auditory conceptualization.
focused on just one of the circles; however all the circles are needed for ultimate read- ing accuracy and fluency. Thus, assessing phoneme awareness/auditory conceptual- ization with the LAC–3 is an important part— but only a part—of evaluating an individual’s language and literacy skills. Phoneme awareness/auditory con- ceptualization, a sensory–cognitive ability that enables one to acquire quick, accurate decoding, is a large part of the auditory circle. It can be assessed using the LAC–3. Other testing or observational information is necessary for the other three circles, in order to obtain a logical, balanced, and complete view of an individual’s written language skills (i.e., written and oral com- prehension, word recognition, word attack, context decoding, and oral vocabulary). Research conducted at Lindamood– Bell Learning Processes® has indicated that symbol imagery, the ability to mentally im-
The Importance of Phoneme Awareness/Auditory Conceptualization to Literacy
Comprehension
Alphabet symbols (i.e., letters) represent speech sounds, also called phonemes. A student who is able to associate the identity and order of sounds in spoken words with the identity and order of letters in written words has a definite adv
Auditory •Phonetic processing
Visual •Sight words
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Language •Oral vocabulary •Use of context
Sample pages from the LAC‑3
Figure 1.1. A model of language and literacy skills.
age the identity, number, and order of letter symbols that represent phonemes in syllables and words, also plays an important role in reading fluency (Bell, 1997, 2000). Measuring an individual’s symbol imagery skills in conjunction with mea- suring phoneme awareness/auditory conceptualization skills is very informative. Individuals who can access both phoneme awareness and symbol imagery can easily grasp the alphabetic principle and the way, in which graphemes are used to map phonemes for written language. These individuals also can note that, because in the English orthographic system parts of some words are not spelled phoneti- cally, they must hold mental images of the letters for those parts in visual memory. These individuals also readily acquire a large sight vocabulary of printed words. Description of the LAC-3 The LAC–3 is a norm-referenced, reliable, and valid measure of auditory percep- tion and conceptualization of speech sounds. It is suitable for individuals ranging in age from 5-0 to 18-11 when normative data are desired, and it is also suitable for assessing the conceptual base that individuals above this age have for compe- tent literacy development. The test was standardized on 1,003 individuals in eight states: California, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The following subsections provide a brief discussion of the LAC–3 format, the test components, the categories of items, and the unique contribution of the LAC–3. Testing Format In the LAC–3, examinees manipulate colored blocks and colored felt squares to indi- cate their conceptualization of speech sounds and single-syllable and multis
LAC-3: Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test–Third Edition Patricia C. Lindamood • Phyllis D. Lindamood AGES: 5‑0 through 18‑11 TESTING TIME: 20 to 30 minutes ADMINISTRATION: Individual The LAC‑3 is an individually administered, norm-referenced assessment that mea- sures an individual’s ability to perceive and conceptualize speech sounds using a visual medium. Because of the importance of these auditory skills to reading, the results are helpful for speech–language pathologists, special educators, and reading specialists. The LAC‑3 also measures the cognitive ability to distinguish and manipu- late sounds, which success in reading and spelling requires. This edition of the LAC has been improved considerably. Three new categories of items that relate to multisyl- labic processing have been added. The availability of standard scores for the LAC‑3 total score is a desirable new feature. CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPROVEMENTS OF THE LAC‑3: • Normative data —Standard scores, percentile ranks, and age and grade equiva- lents are now provided for individuals between the ages of 5-0 and 18-11. • More complexity —The number of items in Category II has been increased from 12 to 18. The syllables have been extended from 4 phonemes to 5. This category is now titled Tracking Phonemes (Monosyllables). • Multisyllabic processing —Three new categories of items have been added that extend the test into the multisyllable level of processing. These subtests are titled Counting Syllables (Multisyllables), Tracking Syllables (Multisyllables), and Tracking Syllables and Phonemes (Multisyllables). • More item analysis —All items on the test were evaluated using both conventional item analysis and differential item functioning analysis. • More reliability —Reliability coefficients are provided for subgroups of the norma- tive sample (e.g., African Americans, Hispanics, gender groups) as well as for the entire normative sample.
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• More validity studies —Many new validity studies have been conducted. Special attention has been devoted to showing that the test is valid for a wide variety of sub- groups, as well as for the general population. • Population characteristics —Characteristics of the total normative sample rela- tive to socioeconomic factors, gender, ethnicity, and other critical variables are the same as those reported for 2001 in the Statistical Abstract of the United States (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2001) and, therefore, are representative of the current U.S. population. • Absence of bias —Studies showing the absence of gender, racial, linguistic, and ethnic bias have been added. • Access to audio files —The LAC-3 includes online access to audio files demon- strating correct pronunciation and administration of test items. COMPLETE LAC‑3 KIT INCLUDES: Examiner’s Manual, 25 Examiner Record Booklets, 24 Blocks, 6 Felts, and online access to audio files, all in a sturdy storage box. (©2004) #10980 LAC‑3 Complete Kit $290.00 #14989 LAC-3 Examiner’s Manual with URL for Audio Files . . . . ..... 142.00 #10989E LAC-3 Virtual Examiner’s Manual with URL for Audio Files . ... 132.00 #10982 LAC‑3 Examiner Record Booklets (25) . . . . . . . . . .......... 107.00
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